Learning typography through Cherokee history

INTRODUCTION

Here’s a design challenge:

Invent a writing system in 86 characters. Each symbol must represent a syllable, and when combined, should communicate all expressions of language.

Then translate it into typography. Print in multiples. Promote literacy. Preserve culture.

An impossible feat, right? Indeed. But that’s the legend of Sequoyah (ꮝꮟꮙꮿ) and his invention of the Cherokee syllabary.

While some details are still debated, what is evident through a study of primary sources and oral history — is quite profound.

In the early 19th century, the Cherokee Nation developed a new typography from their syllabary. They established a printing press; published a bi-lingual newspaper; and authored a new constitution. All firsts of their kind. And alongside a missionary’s agenda, translated Christian texts into Cherokee.

Don’t take these developments lightly. They are all impossible feats and strategic moves. With white settlers encroaching, and governments pressuring assimilation, the Cherokees’ ‘adoption of […] a written alphabet and a constitutional form of government all were intended to accommodate Europeans and forestall relocation’.¹

Forestall relocation — from their own land.

Detail. Cherokee syllabary in Sequoyah’s own hand from the collection of Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Character pairings [script and print] are separated by zigzag lines. ‘When the character showed no correspondence [from script to print], then its design features seemed to have been borrowed from the Roman alphabet’.²

So how did the Cherokee Nation respond to such extreme pressure? Ironically, through establishing a press:

‘To counter non-Indian encroachment on their homelands, the Cherokees needed to learn to use non-Indian weapons. Through the medium of a newspaper, the Cherokee National Council hoped to unify opinion in the Cherokee nation and to gain outside support for Cherokee rights to their homelands’.³

In late 1827, in the woods of New Echota (ꭴꮝꮤꮎꮅ), present-day Georgia, a printing press arrived from New England (a feat in itself). Not only does the press serve as a way to improve the Cherokee ‘image to white society’ — a testament of being ‘civilized’ — but also as a peaceful means of protest.

This was a power play.

Ad for Bowen’s Boston News-Letter, and City Record 1827–01: Vol 2 by New-England Type Foundry by Messrs. Baker & Greele. Internet Archive.

The New-England Type Foundry by Messrs. Baker & Greele supplied the Cherokee Nation with a press and type. ‘Alongside its innovations in type and typecasting, the firm became the sole proprietor of the Union Press (a hand-printing press invented by Isaac Adams and manufactured by Erastus Bartholomew in Connecticut in 1826), at least for a time, and offered its customers fully kitted-out “printing offices” that included everything needed to start a new business’.⁴

Here is an example of a Union Press.

Mechanical typography, therefore, was not so much a defense mechanism as an offensive move. Typography as self-determination. Typography as cultural preservation. Typography as control.

And yes, typography as colonization, Christianization, and assimilation. All of these things are true. The point is, to study primary sources from this time, for any designer, is to learn the complexities of American history alongside design history.

Just think of it: the story of America can be found in the letterform. In the layout of a newspaper. In the reason for printing. And in the study of key sources, of which we’ll examine today:

These documents will then be compared to early 19th century type specimens books (shown in grey) to highlight the following groundbreaking fonts:

This is a paper trail then, or rather this paper is a trail. It’s a trip from England, to New England, to New Echota, the Capital of the Cherokee Nation.

A trail of type — heartbreakingly — towards The Trail of Tears.

We will begin in New Echota, in late 1827, and await the arrival of the press:

Annual Report of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), 1827. Page 111. University of Michigan. [Sequoyah was also called George Guess.]

Cherokee history is a design story. So let’s step inside this log-house-turned-print-shop in Cherokee Nation and meet the team:

‘Elias Boudinot (ꭶꮄꭹꮎ ꭴꮺꮨ, Gălagi′na, “The Buck”), an educated Cherokee, was the editor, and Reverend S. A. Worcester was the guiding spirit who brought order out of chaos and set the work in motion. The office was a log house. The hand press and types, after having been shipped by water from Boston, were transported two hundred miles by wagon from Augusta to their destination. The printing paper had been overlooked and had to be brought by the same tedious process from Knoxville. Cases and other equipments had to be devised and fashioned by the printers, neither of whom understood a word of Cherokee, but simply set up the characters, as handed to them in manuscript by Worcester and the editor. Such was the beginning of journalism in the Cherokee nation’. ⁵

Along with Boudinot and Worcester, Isaac Harris, John Wheeler, and apprentice John Candy (ꮹꮆꮡꮬꮹ, Walosudlawa), comprised the first printing team.

On February 21, 1828, the print shop issued its first copy of the ꮳꮃꭹ ꮷꮄꭿꮜꮕꭿ — herein referred to as the Cherokee Phoenix. What a sight to behold!:

‘It was a day of triumph — the appear­ance of the first Indians newspaper ever published — a newspaper edited by an Indian, partly in an Indian tongue for Indians to read’. ⁶

DOCUMENT 4: Learning Typography from the Cherokee Phoenix4A. The Trail of Cherokee Type:Detail. Cherokee Display Type. Cherokee Phoenix masthead (New Echota) [Ga.]), August 13, 1828. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.Syllabary pronunciation. This text translates to ‘Tsulehisanvhi’ — which loosely means ‘I will arise’.⁷ Notice that each character represents a syllable not a single letter/sound.

The Cherokee Phoenix is a historic design document (hardly framed as such). As the first bi-lingual Native American newspaper and the first to print in the Cherokee language, it narrates a story of cultural sovereignty, language development, and design thinking. So much can be learned simply by studying its form. Let’s begin with the masthead.

So how did the syllabary translate into typography? Did Sequoyah’s characters change during the process?

In the essay The Cherokee Syllabary from Script to Print author Ellen Cushman underlines that ‘while the development of a print version of the syllabary is commonly credited to Worcester, the scholarly record suggests it should not be’.⁸ From ‘documents written by Sequoyah himself, the testimony of a number of his contemporaries, and the Hicks syllabary of 1825 all suggest that Cherokees alone developed the syllabary and adapted it to the requirements of printing’.⁹

Sequoyah’s own drawings are key. He experimented with a shorthand version of the longhand script (see fig. 1) that would later become the ‘model for the design of the type’ ^{10 11}

And the design of type is compelling. The Ꭿ / hi / character in particular seems to capture the personality of the font: dynamic, innovative, and charismatic. A repurposed Roman that is uniquely Sequoyahn in design.

But don’t confound the ꭿ with a letter A. Or expect the syllabary to function like an alphabet. These elements perform differently, exponentially. You see, ‘the Cherokee syllabary can be understood as potentially representing several levels of meaning at once’ ¹² — based on context and design. How remarkable. As Cushman notes ‘we must understand the Cherokee syllabary as a writing system in its own right and view it through an Indigenous lens’ — not through any ‘alphabetic bias’. ¹³

The evolution of the Cherokee ꭿ character.
Left: Detail. Sequoyah’s original syllabary showing longhand and shorthand designs.
Right: Masthead type.

Cherokee display type (on the right) differed from body copy type. The masthead was cut to be bold, in high contrast, with what appears to be accentuated ‘ball terminals’ (presumably added by the typecaster). This style echoed newspaper fonts of the time (a Didone or Fat Face italic).

Fat Face italic with accentuated ball terminals. Specimen of printing types by Caslon and Catherwood, 1821. St Bride Foundation.An early American example of ball terminals. Specimen of printing types, from the foundery of Binny & Ronaldson. Philadelphia, 1812. University of California Libraries.Detail. Cherokee Body Copy. Cherokee Phoenix (New Echota) [Ga.]), August 13, 1828. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.4B. The Trail of the Fat Face:Detail. Fat Face Display Type. Cherokee Phoenix (New Echota) [Ga.]), August 13, 1828. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

The masthead showcases presiding newspaper fonts of the time — but what were these?

In the early 1800s, ground breaking typography emerged from Britain (London as a global publishing center). This was during the Industrial Revolution and typecasting reflected technological advancement. New fonts such as the Fat Face, the Antique and the Shaded — broke the molds quite literally due to innovation in molds and matrices, paper and printing. Five key years — ‘between 1805 and 1810 is when things happen’.¹⁴ Larger sizes, heavier weights, and 3D typography emerged, and prompted foundries to proclaim ‘Improved printing types’ on their sample books.

Don’t take these letters at type-face value though. History is revealed in their form.

The Fat Face was an extreme version of the Modern Style — or the French Didone. In 1803, Britain declared war on France. The Fat Face emerges soon thereafter, which begs the question: Is the boldening of the Didone (viewed as French type) a visual metaphor for British power over France? I wonder. (To understand the tensions between countries, read this interesting letter from typefounders Binny & Ronaldson to Thomas Jefferson.)

Typography is indeed a force. And these novel fonts reflect powerful designs from ‘the world’s most industrialized economy’.¹⁵ So they spread like the news in the advent of newspaper design. When the Fat Face arrives in America it connects, visually, to this global economy. Now empire is not just defined by land acquisition. It can be an empire of letters — a common visual language, prescribed programming, and shared socio-cultural values. We’ll call this the geography of typography.¹⁶

So when we learn about the Fat Face, think of the Industrial Revolution. Think of the spread of ideas. Think of imperialism. Think of the advent of the newspaper.

And think of Cherokee printing — as reported from Oxford, England:

‘Even in this wild region typography has succeeded in establishing itself! In the year 1827 a press was at work, and a weekly newspaper published, at Echota, under the name of “the Cherokee Phœnix:” part of it is in English, and part in the Cherokee language according to an alphabet lately invented by a native, whose name is said to be Guess…. The Phoenix is about 19 inches long by 12 wide, printed in five columns, of which the Cherokee part occupies one and a half: its execution is thought very good’. ¹⁷

The execution was very good. And like British typography, the newspaper’s reputation was spreading fast. So much so that the design seemingly inspired other papers.

An early example of the Fat Face. Fonts were not labeled by this name, but referenced by it. Specimen of printing types by Caslon and Catherwood, 1805. St Bride Foundation.

[Compare the C in ‘Cherokee’ to this type specimen.]

New specimen of printing types from the Fann Street letter foundry by W. Thorowgood and Company, 1825. St Bride Foundation.

Why does this sample say ‘Thorne’? Well Robert Thorne (1753–1820) was a type founder often credited with designing the first Fat Face. Recent research, however, suggests a more collective origin: sign painters, engravers and foundries all influencing the field. ¹⁸ William Thorowgood acquired Thorne’s foundry (i.e., the Fann Street Foundry) upon his death in 1820.

4C. The Trail of the Phoenix Ornament:Ornament examples. Left: The Phoenix masthead from the Cherokee Phoenix, 13 August 1828.
Right: The Phoenix ornament from the New England Type and Stereotype Foundry: Specimens of printing types and ornaments, 1851. (Also found in their 1828 catalogue.) Houghton Library, Harvard University.

Did you know that type specimen books offer ornament sections as well? Flip through their pages and you’ll learn about 19th century society — in visual form. From heraldry, to freemasonry, to slavery, it’s all there as imagery. And like type specimens, the illustrations offer clues.

What does this ornament tell us?

Well the phoenix symbolizes rebirth. This mythical bird can never be destroyed. Like the sun, it will rise again.

In 1826, while on a fundraising tour for the press, Elias Boudinot gave an important speech to a northern crowd, remarking: ‘Yes, under such protection, and with such assistance, the Indian must rise like the Phoenix…’.¹⁹

This was a hopeful metaphor for the Cherokee people who ‘rose from the ashes of defeat’ after the American Revolution (1775–1783) and were in a period of rebuilding.²⁰ (Their crisis was never-ending.) So the name of the newspaper may have come from Boudinot.

The ornament is also significant for its illustrator — the prominent Alexander Anderson [this is the author’s opinion based on drawing and lettering styles]. Known as the ‘The father of American wood engraving’, Anderson was a prolific artist during this time. Did Anderson (or contemporary) create the Phoenix ornament for the New England Type and Stereotype Foundry — who then supplied it to the Cherokee Phoenix newspaper? Unknown. But let’s look at the design for a clue.

When comparing the two illustrations above, one immediately notices their similarities. They even share the same printing error (e.g., a notch on the wing). So it’s likely that they’re made from the same master block. These designs also provide insight into printing technology during the early 19th century. Advancements in new processes called electrotyping and stereotyping allowed for ease of duplication. So it’s no surprise that we find this ornament sold by Baker & Greele and among other vendors.

Predictably, Harvard’s 1828 copy of The New-England Type Foundery by Messrs Baker and Greele specimen book offers the phoenix. (But curiously, it’s not found in their 1827 catalogue.) The ornament can also be traced to: G.B. New York (1828) [without the banner]; O. Wells and Company (1829); J. Howe & Co (1830); Boston Type & Stereotype Foundry (1832); and Baltimore Type Foundry (1832).

What a popular bird!

Specimen of printing types and ornaments by J. Howe & Co, 1830. The Library of Congress.

[The J. Howe & Co, 1830, offers multiple ornaments drawn by Anderson — corroborated with illustrations from his scrapbooks.]

A specimen of printing types and ornaments from the Baltimore Type Foundry, 1832. Columbia University Library.

Why does the Phoenix sit under a banner that says ‘Protection’? Who is protecting whom?

Divine providence of course! But given Cherokee history, the language likely refers to a federal protection agreement. The first US treaty with the Cherokees (The Hopewell Treaty of 1785) states that ‘all the Cherokees to be under the protection of the United States of America, and of no other sovereign whosoever.’ Here, the word ‘protection’ has legal significance. (Legal significance that the US will eventually betray, as you shall see.)

There is also a history, outside of the Cherokee narrative, that combines the Phoenix with the word ‘protection’. Early designs from the Edmund Fry foundry along with Alexander Anderson’s scrapbook collection offer clues into this lineage:

Early Phoenix / Protection ornaments from England and America.
Left: Ornament sample from Specimen of printing types by Edmund Fry, 1816 and 1824. St Bride Foundation.
Right: Alexander Anderson Scrapbooks, 1794–1870 (Approximate); New York Public Library. The phoenix symbol can be traced to England, Queen Elizabeth 1, and possibly freemasonry.²¹An address to the whites: delivered in the First Presbyterian Church, on the 26th of May, 1826. Image 1. Amherst College Library Collection.DOCUMENT 5 Learning Typography from An Address to the Whites5A. The Trail of the Antique:An example of Antique Type (top line). Detail. An address to the whites, 1826. Amherst College Library Collection.

As mentioned above, Elias Boudinot(t) was on a fundraising tour for the press in 1826. This booklet, which encapsulates his speech, highlights a font called the Antique. Also referred to as the Egyptian, the Antique is a ‘geometrical, monoline letter with square, unbracketed serifs’.²² Today, we call it a slab serif.

To the eyes of a 19th-century reader, this font was shocking. Compare the two lines of text above and you’ll see a dramatic difference. Type critic Thomas Hansard exclaims: ‘the letters are all of one uniform thickness! — After this, who would have thought that further extravagance could have been conceived?’.²³ The earliest example (?) of the Antique can be found in Vincent Figgins’ specimen book from 1815 — on paper watermarked 1817. Go figure.

Even though these typefaces had been rebuked by 19th century critics, their popularity proved lasting: ‘These three display types, the Fat Faces, the Egyptians, or Antiques, and the sans serifs, remained unchanged throughout the nineteenth century […] an indication that there was something good in them’.²⁴ Indeed, there was something good in them which is why they should be studied today.

But there’s more to this lesson.

When examining primary sources and its typefaces, we need to recognise that the ‘medium is the message’.²⁵

The cover of An Address to the Whites features a layout that is arguably Anglo-Protestant in aesthetic. In the essay ‘The Politics of Media Format,‘ Sonia Hazard states that ‘before removal, Cherokee printers emulated Anglo-Protestant prototypes in terms of dimensions, layout, and typography’. Why? Well Boudinot’s text ‘offers a striking window onto theories regarding the power of material display, especially the display of Christian acculturation as a route toward the perseverance of rights, lands, and culture’.²⁶

What does this mean exactly? Well it seems that layout, typography, and images — were all design choices — for survival.

Reflect on that.

Specimen of printing types by Caslon and Catherwood, 1821. St Bride Foundation.Specimen of printing types by Vincent Figgins, 1824. St Bride Foundation.Printer bylines from the Cherokee Phoenix, 1828 (top) and 1829 (bottom).

[The Cherokee Phoenix introduced the Antique font in January, 1829, upon Isaac Harris’ departure. In the above, ‘ISAAC H. HARRIS’ is set in the Fat Face. ‘JNO. F. WHEELER’ is set in Antique.]

DOCUMENT 6: Learning Typography from The Cherokee Alphabet broadside6A. The Trail of Shaded Type:Detail. An example of Meridian Shaded.

A newspaper, a booklet, now a broadside. Syllabary type alongside the Fat Face, the Antique and the Shaded. The thrill of print media and its novel ways to visualise language. Progress through the press. Shipped to your home on ships.

Suddenly fonts can create the illusion of space on the page. Design in 3D. Allowing us to view type from all sides (which is what this article sets out to do).

The example above is called Meridian Shaded. ‘Meridian’ because the shadow is in the noon position. Plus, the metaphor is meaningful: This syllabary reflects the brightest moment of the day.

While shaded types are first referenced at the end of the 18th century, typefounder Vincent Figgins seems to have perfected the craft, in 1815, with his ‘5 Lines Pica, in Shade’ shown below:

An example of Shade Type. Specimen of printing types by Vincent Figgins, 1824. St Bride Foundation.

[RIT offers the 1815 copy online.]

A specimen of printing types, etc. by Blake, Garnett and Co., successors to Mr W. Caslon, of London, 1819. St Bride Foundation.

But if the Shaded was designed in England, how did it travel? Did foundries in America import from London, cut their own fonts, or copy styles?

All of the above, it seems. A research team led by scholar Kathryn Walkiewicz just translated Baker & Greele’s New England Type and Stereotype Foundry’s Letterbook from 1825.

The correspondences are compelling. They provide insight into the business of type founding in Boston, in this burgeoning city of type. We meet mysterious characters like: punchcutter Mr. Wm J. Hill; ‘Carlon’ and Livermore (presumably from the Caslon & Livermore foundry); Mr. Bruce.; Messrs. Howe and Son.; Mr. Geo Smith.; Mr. Richard Starr; and Mr. White. These are all leading figures in England and America — and skilled typographers who moved from England to America (Scotland and Germany too). Suddenly we’ve unlocked the past.

We also see how orders are placed overseas. There’s one for the ‘Fame’ Street foundry (aka ‘Fann Street’) — placing an order with the famous Mr. W Thorowgood at a discounted price (hopefully). (See page 60.)

And finally, due to Professor Walkiewicz’s research, we can assign credit to type designers of the Shaded. Here’s how they hired punchcutter Richard Starr:

The solicitation worked! Starr’s Long Primer Shaded can be found in a later specimen book:

Long Primer, Shaded. Specimen of printing types from the New England Type Foundry. H. Willis, 1834. University of Missouri – Columbia.Detail. New England Type and Stereotype Foundry. Specimens of printing types and ornaments, from the New England Type & Stereotype Foundry. Hobart & Robbins, successors to Geo. A. Curtis, 66 Congress Street. 1851 Houghton Library, Harvard University.6B. The Trail of English Flowers:Border from the Cherokee alphabet broadside.Two Lines English No. 3. border from Specimen of printing types from the New England Type Foundry. H. Willis [Boston 1827?]. Houghton Library, Harvard University.Two Lines English No. 3. And No. 5. from Specimen of printing types from the New England Type Foundry. H. Willis, 1834. University of Missouri – Columbia.

Along with type and ornaments, specimen books also offered borders (sometimes called flowers). The border on this broadside is a close match to the one from The New England Type Foundry Specimen of Printing Types (called Two Lines English No. 3).

Similar flowers can be traced across foundries such as: Specimen of printing types by Caslon and Catherwood, 1805 (see ‘English 1’); Figgins’ Specimen of printing types from 1815 and 1828 (see item 14); A specimen of printing types, cast at the letter-foundry of D. and G. Bruce, 1818, (see English Flowers, No. 1 and 4) — et al.

Notice how the glyphs can be used in different combinations.DOCUMENT 7:7A. The Trail of the Press (a plot twist!)

Yes, the Cherokee Nation established a press in 1828 but this was under a broader ‘civilization’ campaign by the Federal government.

In early 1819, the United States Congress passed the ‘Civilization Fund Act’ — an act to fund missionaries to work with Native Americans. The first missionary society in America — The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), located in Boston — received those funds.

Remember Reverend Samuel Austin Worcester from the print shop? Well, he was an ABCFM missionary to the Cherokees. And he was on a mission.

The ABCFM did more than just Christianize communities: ‘Beyond religious expansionism, mission work offered a thin veil for American cultural and political imperialism’.²⁷ They oversaw education, governance, agriculture, language development and established printing presses, globally.²⁸

If this sounds like the Cherokee story — you’re right. But with one caveat: The Cherokee National Council retained power in decision-making. They led governance. They raised funds for the press. They designed a novel syllabary and ‘fought to ensure [its] inclusion’ in printing.²⁹

You see, the syllabary was more than just a language system — it was a life-line. So a lot was on the line.

In 1827, John Pickering (a linguist from Boston working with the ABCFM) writes to Wilhelm von Humboldt (a linguist from Germany) to report:

‘A Gazette or Newspaper, in the Cherokee and English languages, is about to be published in the Cherokee nation. The types are now making in this city (Boston) for a new set of characters made by a native Cherokee. I should inform you, that this native (whose name is George Guess, & who is called by his countrymen ‘The Philosopher’) was not satisfied with the alphabet of letters, or single sounds, which we white people had prepared for him, |33v| in the sheets of a Cherokee Grammar formerly sent to you, but he thought fit to devise a new syllabic alphabet; which is quite contrary to our notions of a useful alphabetic system. He has, by his own analysis, reduced all the syllables of their language to about eighty three, & his alphabet accordingly consists of 83 arbitrary characters, instead of 16 or 18 Roman letters…’. ³⁰

Language is critical to culture: ‘Any act of speaking, reading, or writing in a Native language contributes in small or great measure to a tribe’s continued existence.’ ³¹ To teach Native Americans using only the Latin ‘alphabetic system’ is an act of erasure. The Cherokees were ‘not satisfied’ with this plan and rejected the proposed ‘alphabet of letters’. During immense pressure to assimilate or be annihilated, the syllabary sustains. Because of this, a culture remains.

As an aside — Cherokee Dewi Brown, who worked with linguist John Pickering, provides a heartwarming account of the Cherokee community:

‘There are some traits in the character of my countrymen that are truly admirable, and are worthy of imitation; such as extreme love to friends, hospitality to strangers, respect for the aged, &c. In these respects I firmly believe that the Indians are much more like the offspring of Jehovah, than many who call themselves civilized’. ³²

CONCLUSIONThe Trail of Tears:

A precious metal and a precious people will soon be removed.

In 1828, gold was discovered in Georgia.³³

In 1830, congress passed the Indian Removal Act. One thing leads to the other.

The act itself is a betrayal of all prior treaties with the Cherokees. And it was illegal. Chief John Ross declared that ‘institutions based on moral principles, can be sustained little longer than those principles are preserved uncorrupted’. He wrote this in the hopes that the ‘U.S. will eventually honor its agreements’.³⁴ But they don’t.

The removal was brutal. By 1838, 16,000 people were forced from their homes. 4,000 died in exodus. (And these numbers only account for the Cherokees.)

The Cherokee Phoenix lasted 6 years in New Echota (1828 to 1834).

To survey the newspaper’s front pages across time is to witness encroachment. From year to year, English text dominates the page. Cherokee text becomes marginalised.

Type is a foreshadowing.

In 1834, the press — a symbol of Cherokee civilization — was seized by the Georgia militia. Metal type, tossed down a well. Voices silenced.^{35 36}

A civilization destroyed by a civilized nation.

Found metal type. Text-weight Cherokee Ꭿ. Unearthed at Cane Hill, Arkansas in 2012. Photo by Jared Pebworth.

So what happens next?

Well the answer is in the prophecy.

The Phoenix rises.

The ‘end of the New Echotan press and Cherokee Nation in the east, however, was not the end of Cherokee printing’. Three ‘syllabic presses in the west’ are established. ³⁷ John Candy, once an apprentice, is now lead printer. He works alongside Rev. Samuel Worcester still. But where is Boudinot? Well the story of ‘removal’ applies not only to land. He was assassinated for signing the ‘Treaty of New Echota’ they say.

The silver lining is the syllabary. It lives on — in memory, in writing and in metal. (And now in beautiful, digital type.)

So you can’t stop the press in the west. It continued to publish works like The Gospel of Jesus Christ according to John, 1841; Cherokee Hymns, 1841; and of course, the Cherokee Phoenix and Indian Advocate newspaper.

The type rises from the ashes.

The Cherokee. The Fat Face. The Antique.

The Meridian Shade.

FINIS